The earth's Spheres
- Hydrosphere (Water)
All the water in the hydrosphere is always in motion just like the atmospheric gases. The natural earth features depicting the hydrosphere are the rivers, streams, lakes, seas, oceans and the water vapor. Glaciers, which are the slowly moving masses of ice, are also part of the hydrosphere. 97% of all earth’s water is salty. Oceans carry most of the salty water while the majority of lakes and rivers carry fresh water. The earth’s temperature is highly influenced by the hydrosphere.
Very low temperatures are associated with icebergs, glaciers or icecaps; low to moderate temperatures are associated with the common types of precipitation like snow, rain, drizzle, sleet or hails; and high temperatures are tied to dry and hot conditions and evaporation. The glaciers, icebergs, and icecaps are also categorically called the cryosphere.
- Biosphere (Living Things)
Collectively, these ecological communities are made reference to as biomes. Deserts, forests, grasslands, aquatic, tundra, and chaparral are the six main biomes that are present in the biosphere. The living things on earth interact with each other in various ways, which is well elaborated under the trophic levels of food chain – how energy is transferred in ecological systems.
- Lithosphere (Land)
The liquid, semi-solid, and solid land components of the lithosphere form layers that are chemically and physically different. This is why the lithosphere is further divided into sub-spheres namely the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. The crust is made of loose soil and rocks. The mantle is made of dense rock made up of nickel and iron in the form of silicate rocks and its lower part is semi-solid (partially molten) rocks.The outer core is made up of liquid (purely molten) rock materials. The inner core is the centre of the earth which is purely made of very hot and liquid iron and nickel. The rock materials are divided into three primary categories based on how they are formed namely igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.
- Atmosphere (Air)
Other layers of the atmosphere include the troposphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and the exosphere. These atmospheric layers exhibit different chemical compositions and temperatures, and the temperatures and chemical compositions widely vary within the different layers. The troposphere is where most of the weather happens and it becomes colder with altitude. The air is in constant motion around the planet and it is normally responsible for some natural events in the planet such as local breeze, winds, tornado, and tropical cyclones. The atmosphere is always in constant interaction with the hydrosphere, giving rise to the planets weather conditions.
water stored in ice and oceans, and changing sea levels
Why sea level matters
In the United States, almost 40% of the population lives in relatively high population-density coastal areas, where sea level plays a role in flooding, shoreline erosion, and hazards from storms. Globally, 8 of the world’s 10 largest cities are near a coast, according to the U.N. Atlas of the Oceans.
In urban settings along coastlines around the world, rising seas threaten infrastructure necessary for local jobs and regional industries. Roads, bridges, subways, water supplies, oil and gas wells, power plants, sewage treatment plants, landfills—the list is practically endless—are all at risk from sea level rise.
Higher “background” water levels mean that deadly and destructive storm surges—like those associated with Hurricane Katrina or “Superstorm” Sandy—push farther inland than they once did. Higher sea level also means more frequent “nuisance flooding”—not deadly or dangerous, usually, but still disruptive and expensive.
In the natural world, rising sea level creates stress on coastal ecosystems that provide recreation, protection from storms, and habitat for fish and wildlife, including commercially valuable fisheries. As seas rise, saltwater is also intruding into freshwater aquifers, many of which sustain municipal and agricultural water supplies and natural ecosystems.
In the United States, almost 40% of the population lives in relatively high population-density coastal areas, where sea level plays a role in flooding, shoreline erosion, and hazards from storms. Globally, 8 of the world’s 10 largest cities are near a coast, according to the U.N. Atlas of the Oceans.
In urban settings along coastlines around the world, rising seas threaten infrastructure necessary for local jobs and regional industries. Roads, bridges, subways, water supplies, oil and gas wells, power plants, sewage treatment plants, landfills—the list is practically endless—are all at risk from sea level rise.
Higher “background” water levels mean that deadly and destructive storm surges—like those associated with Hurricane Katrina or “Superstorm” Sandy—push farther inland than they once did. Higher sea level also means more frequent “nuisance flooding”—not deadly or dangerous, usually, but still disruptive and expensive.
In the natural world, rising sea level creates stress on coastal ecosystems that provide recreation, protection from storms, and habitat for fish and wildlife, including commercially valuable fisheries. As seas rise, saltwater is also intruding into freshwater aquifers, many of which sustain municipal and agricultural water supplies and natural ecosystems.
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What’s causing sea level to rise?
Sea level is rising for two main reasons: glaciers and ice sheets are melting and adding water to the ocean and the volume of the ocean is expanding as the water warms. A third, much smaller contributor to sea level rise is a decline in water storage on land—aquifers, lakes and reservoirs, rivers, soil moisture—mostly as a result of groundwater pumping, which has shifted water from aquifers to the ocean. From the 1970s up through the last decade, melting and thermal expansion were contributing roughly equally to the observed sea level rise. But the melting of glaciers and ice sheets has accelerated, and over the past decade, the amount of sea level rise due to melting—with a small addition from groundwater transfer and other water storage shifts—has been nearly twice the amount of sea level rise due to thermal expansion. Glacier mass loss accelerated from 226 gigatons/year between 1971 and 2009 to 275 gigatons/year between 1993 and 2009. Ice loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet increased six-fold, from 34 gigatons/year between 1992-2001 to 215 gigatons/year between 2002 and 2011. Antarctic ice loss more than quadrupled, from 30 gigatons/year between 1992 and 2001 to 147 gigatons/year from 2002 to 2011. The pace of global sea level rise doubled from 1.7 mm/year throughout most of the twentieth century to 3.4 mm/year since 1993. Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average due to local factors: subsidence, upstream flood control, erosion, regional ocean currents, and whether the land is still rebounding from the compressive weight of Ice Age glaciers. |
Sea level inputs
NASA sea level data - link
Do Icebergs effect Sea Level?
In a paper titled "The Melting of Floating Ice will Raise the Ocean Level" submitted to Geophysical Journal International, Noerdlinger demonstrates that melt water from sea ice and floating ice shelves could add 2.6% more water to the ocean than the water displaced by the ice, or the equivalent of approximately 4 centimeters (1.57 inches) of sea-level rise. The common misconception that floating ice won’t increase sea level when it melts occurs because the difference in density between fresh water and salt water is not taken into consideration. Archimedes’ Principle states that an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. However, Noerdlinger notes that because freshwater is not as dense as saltwater, freshwater actually has greater volume than an equivalent weight of saltwater. Thus, when freshwater ice melts in the ocean, it contributes a greater volume of melt water than it originally displaced. Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2005-08-ice-sea.html#jCp |
Relative Sea Level
Eustacy and isostasy are ways of describing relative sea level change which is a measure of changes in the level (height) of the sea, relative to the land.
Eustatic sea level change describes a change in the volume of the sea in ocean basins. This is caused by either a change in the amount of water in the basins (for example, an addition of water from melting ice sheets) or by a change in the size of the ocean basins (such the formation of new continental crust, reducing the capacity of the basins).
Eustatic change causes a global rise or fall in sea level.
Isostatic sea level change occurs due to the movement of the land in relation to the sea in specific areas and hence causes a local change in sea level. Isostasy is a process by which the Earth’s crust attempts to reach an equilibrium balance with the mantle it is floating on. Hence isostatic sea level change occurs when the Earth’s crust rises of falls relative to the sea, often due to an increase or decrease of mass on top of the crust.
For example, during an ice age, the crust becomes heavier due to the mass of ice on top of it, and sinks into the mantle to remain buoyant and in equilibrium, leading to an apparent increase in sea level relative to the land.
When measuring change in sea level, both isostatic and eustatic sea level changes must be taken into consideration to measure the total amount of change.
Eustacy and isostasy are ways of describing relative sea level change which is a measure of changes in the level (height) of the sea, relative to the land.
Eustatic sea level change describes a change in the volume of the sea in ocean basins. This is caused by either a change in the amount of water in the basins (for example, an addition of water from melting ice sheets) or by a change in the size of the ocean basins (such the formation of new continental crust, reducing the capacity of the basins).
Eustatic change causes a global rise or fall in sea level.
Isostatic sea level change occurs due to the movement of the land in relation to the sea in specific areas and hence causes a local change in sea level. Isostasy is a process by which the Earth’s crust attempts to reach an equilibrium balance with the mantle it is floating on. Hence isostatic sea level change occurs when the Earth’s crust rises of falls relative to the sea, often due to an increase or decrease of mass on top of the crust.
For example, during an ice age, the crust becomes heavier due to the mass of ice on top of it, and sinks into the mantle to remain buoyant and in equilibrium, leading to an apparent increase in sea level relative to the land.
When measuring change in sea level, both isostatic and eustatic sea level changes must be taken into consideration to measure the total amount of change.
Advanced REading - Sea level change
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carbon stored in ice, oceans and the biosphere
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Global Carbon cycle
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| carboncyclebackground.pdf |
- Outline briefly where carbon is present.
- What is the name given for a store of carbon and what is the name given to the movement of carbon between two stores?
- Give an example of three of these movements in the cycle then make a brief copy of figure 1 on page 1 of the document.
- How does the carbon cycle link into the atmospheric energy budget (first lessons in this unit of work)?
- Outline the relationship between carbon sources and carbon sinks.
- What does the abbreviation 'pg' refer to and how it is calculated?
- Create a spider diagram / bullet point list showing the four major carbon pools with a 50 word max explanation of each including pg data.
- Create a further spider diagram / bullet point list that shows the five natural carbon fluxes.
- Make note on how human activity can cause fluxes to occur focusing on fossil fuel combustion and land use change.
incidence and severity of extreme weather events, including drought
"Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Often, extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent."
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Using the links provided create a report that will answer the following questions:
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| CLIMATE CHANGE AND EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS |
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spatial changes in biomes, habitats and animal migration patterns
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World risk for ecological damage
An ecosystem is an interacting community of organisms and their physical environments, from soil minerals to topographic formations to weather patterns. The essential function of such a system is to capture and distribute energy and to cycle nutrients. Energy in the form of light and heat flows through ecosystems and in nearly all cases derives from solar radiation captured by green plants and other photosynthetic organisms. Matter, meanwhile, exists in inherently limited quantity on the planet and must therefore be cycled, or reused. Animals require plants to make solar energy available to them in usable form, and plants require animals to cycle nutrients. Ecosystems exist on all scales, from microscopic bacterial communities to the entire Earth -- the global ecosystem being the biosphere.
Biome is an ecological concept closely related to an ecosystem. It typically refers to a large-scale community of organisms shaped by common environmental conditions, such as patterns of climate and geology. Usually a biome is named after its predominant vegetation association: for example, tropical rainforest versus midlatitude deciduous forest; or, more broadly, forest versus grassland versus desert and so on. Very roughly, a biome may be thought of as the biotic community of a large-scale ecosystem, and while the abiotic components are implied as the shaping factors of a biome, they aren’t explicitly referenced in the term as they are in an ecosystem. A biome, which encompasses numerous smaller-scale ecosystems, is general and global. The tropical-rainforest biome references that ecological community across the planet, from South America to Southeast Asia. By contrast, you might speak of the Amazon Basin rainforest as a specific ecosystem distinct -- in species composition, hydrology and other factors -- from the Congo Basin rainforest.
A habitat is a place where a species lives. It is the natural place or environment in which plants, animals and organisms live. Basically, their physical surroundings that influence and is used by any species. Habitats are specific to a population. Each population has its own habitat. If the habitat changes and it no longer works for the species, they adapt or move on. Many species can live in the same habitat, such as a pond.
Biome is an ecological concept closely related to an ecosystem. It typically refers to a large-scale community of organisms shaped by common environmental conditions, such as patterns of climate and geology. Usually a biome is named after its predominant vegetation association: for example, tropical rainforest versus midlatitude deciduous forest; or, more broadly, forest versus grassland versus desert and so on. Very roughly, a biome may be thought of as the biotic community of a large-scale ecosystem, and while the abiotic components are implied as the shaping factors of a biome, they aren’t explicitly referenced in the term as they are in an ecosystem. A biome, which encompasses numerous smaller-scale ecosystems, is general and global. The tropical-rainforest biome references that ecological community across the planet, from South America to Southeast Asia. By contrast, you might speak of the Amazon Basin rainforest as a specific ecosystem distinct -- in species composition, hydrology and other factors -- from the Congo Basin rainforest.
A habitat is a place where a species lives. It is the natural place or environment in which plants, animals and organisms live. Basically, their physical surroundings that influence and is used by any species. Habitats are specific to a population. Each population has its own habitat. If the habitat changes and it no longer works for the species, they adapt or move on. Many species can live in the same habitat, such as a pond.
All ecosystems have a particular limiting factor that controls their stability and represents their vulnerability to climate change. For instance, a desert area may have sufficient solar radiation and soil nutrients to sustain abundant plant life, but lack of water would be the limiting factor. A glacial area may have sufficient water and nutrients, but lack of incoming solar radiation limits plant growth, which in turn limits the numbers of all other organisms in the ecosystem. Limiting factors may not only be a minimum level — there may be an excess of water, or heat, or nutrients, and so on. For example, if a farmer releases an overflow of fertiliser nutrients into a stream, the excess of nutrients can kill many organisms and severely disrupt the ecosystem. Therefore, ecosystems have three critical levels for their limiting factors. First, there is the minimum level below which productivity ceases altogether. Second, there is the optimum level where productivity is greatest. Finally, there is the maximum level above which productivity ceases once again. Each of these three critical levels can be affected by climate change, whether natural or anthropogenic. It is believed that hundreds of living organisms have become extinct in recent decades as climate change has pushed the limiting factors of plant and animal species’ habitats beyond the boundaries for survival. These extinctions have occurred as average global temperatures have risen by less than 1C˚, so there are grave concerns about the impact of possible future rises in temperatures that may be even greater.
Codrington, Stephen. Our Changing Planet (Planet Geography Book 1) (Kindle Locations 5912-5928). Solid Star Press. Kindle Edition.
Codrington, Stephen. Our Changing Planet (Planet Geography Book 1) (Kindle Locations 5912-5928). Solid Star Press. Kindle Edition.
Climate change will cause biomes to shift and disappear
NASA: climate change leads to enormous ecosystem shifts – 40% of biomes flip this century
Climate Impacts: Melting Glaciers, Shifting Biomes and Dying Trees in US National Parks
IPCC report: climate impacts on wildlife
Climate change: global reshuffle of wildlife will have huge impacts on humanity
Maps in motion - visualization of migration
NASA: climate change leads to enormous ecosystem shifts – 40% of biomes flip this century
Climate Impacts: Melting Glaciers, Shifting Biomes and Dying Trees in US National Parks
IPCC report: climate impacts on wildlife
Climate change: global reshuffle of wildlife will have huge impacts on humanity
Maps in motion - visualization of migration
Animal migration patterns in North America
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Animal migration patterns in South America
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- What is the difference between a habitat, an ecosystem, a biome, and the biosphere?
- How does biodiversity help an ecosystem to be more resilient?
- Why are ecosystems vulnerable to climate change?
- Giving examples, explain what is meant by the term ‘limiting factor’ when applied to ecosystems.
- What are the three critical levels for the limiting factors of ecosystems?
- How can climate change force an ecosystem towards its limiting factors, and perhaps beyond?
- How do animals respond when their ecosystem is disturbed, such as when the climate changes?
- Outline evidence that the migration patterns of birds and animals are changing as a response to climate change.
- How do plant species migrate as a response to climate change?
- Choose one biome and describe the expected changes- provide examples
- Explain why habitat reduction for some species can lead to habitat expansion for others. Provide an example of this interaction.
- Create a list outlining some problems caused by Biome 'shift'
changes to agriculture, including crop yields, limits of cultivation, soil erosion
| Overview of how climate change affects agriculture |
Change in potential yields for corn, potatoes, rice and wheat in 2050
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The impact of extreme weather on crop yields in the US
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North America No place grows more corn than the midwestern United States. Despite a 20 percent drop in production, the region will remain a global supplier.
South America Many crops will suffer in Brazil. Under the HadGEM2 model, corn farmers will see crops decline by nearly 16 percent. Northern European potato farmers will see longer growing seasons. Fields farther south will become increasingly dry. West Africa’s rich soil and abundant water may support more rice. Parts of East Africa are believed to have great potential to expand production. Changes in Asia, with its large population and land area, will affect the most people. India and China will experience major losses of arable land. Indonesia’s rice production will be largely spared by climate change, but corn will decline as much as 20 percent. New parts of Australia will become arable, but droughts will require efficient farming if growing wheat is to continue. |
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Describe and discuss the above trends in potential changes in agricultural yields around the world. |
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Soild Degradation
Global Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation - Extent
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Global Assessment of Human-induced Soil Degradation - Causes
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How do rising atmospheric temperatures affect plant growth and crop yields?
Explain how rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere can both boost and retard crop production. What is the impact of climate change on livestock farming? In what ways do farmers adapt to changing climates? Explain how soils form, and why they are vulnerable to climate change. Is climate change likely to increase or decrease the risk posed by pests to agriculture? Give reasons for your answer. |
Extended reading and research on the impact of Climate Change on Agriculture
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| Agriculture and Climate Change |
Impacts of climate change on people and places, including health hazards, migration and ocean transport routes
Health
1. Certain groups have higher susceptibility to climate-sensitive health impacts owing to their age (children and elderly), gender (particularly pregnant women), social marginalization (associated in some areas with indigenous populations, poverty or migration status), or other health conditions like HIV. The socioeconomic costs of health problems caused by climate change are considerable.
2. Many infectious diseases, including water-borne ones, are highly sensitive to climate conditions. Figure below illustrates the correlation between temperature and diarrhea. A main concern in both developed and developing countries was the increase in and increased geographical spread of diarrhoeal diseases.
3. Climate change lengthens the transmission season and expands the geographical range of many diseaseslike malaria and dengue. For example, the conditions for dengue transmission are likely to expand significantly across the globe.
4. Climate change will bring new and emerging health issues, including heatwaves and other extreme events. Heat stress can make working conditions unbearable and increase the risk of cardiovascular, respiratory and renal diseases. Additionally, it is estimated that 22.5 million people are displaced annually by climate or weather-related disasters, and these figures are expected to increase in the future. Climate-induced human mobility has a socioeconomic cost and can affect mental and physical health.
5. Malnutrition and undernutrition were highlighted as a concern for a number of developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, which discussed the impacts of climate change on food security, particularly in relation to floods and drought.
2. Many infectious diseases, including water-borne ones, are highly sensitive to climate conditions. Figure below illustrates the correlation between temperature and diarrhea. A main concern in both developed and developing countries was the increase in and increased geographical spread of diarrhoeal diseases.
3. Climate change lengthens the transmission season and expands the geographical range of many diseaseslike malaria and dengue. For example, the conditions for dengue transmission are likely to expand significantly across the globe.
4. Climate change will bring new and emerging health issues, including heatwaves and other extreme events. Heat stress can make working conditions unbearable and increase the risk of cardiovascular, respiratory and renal diseases. Additionally, it is estimated that 22.5 million people are displaced annually by climate or weather-related disasters, and these figures are expected to increase in the future. Climate-induced human mobility has a socioeconomic cost and can affect mental and physical health.
5. Malnutrition and undernutrition were highlighted as a concern for a number of developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, which discussed the impacts of climate change on food security, particularly in relation to floods and drought.
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Extended information on Climate change and Health
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Migration
Climate refugees or environmental migrants are people who are forced to leave their home region due to sudden or long-term changes to their local environment. These are changes which compromise their well-being or secure livelihood. Such changes are held to include increased droughts, desertification, sea level rise, and disruption of seasonal weather patterns. Climate refugees may choose flee to or migrate to another country, or they may migrate internally within their own country.
| Greenpeace - climate change and migration |
UN link explaining environmental refugees
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Changes in trade routes
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The changing conditions offer an opening to shipping companies. The Arctic is potentially a faster, more direct route between Asia and ports in Europe and eastern North America.
Currently there is relatively little cargo shipped through the region. Although shipping will increase over the next decade, especially as Russia develops oil and gas fields in Siberia, total Arctic cargo tonnage is expected to remain only a small fraction of the amount carried along southern routes through the Suez and Panama canals. But with “middle of the road” warming — higher than the 2015 Paris accord target but lower than the most extreme climate change forecasts — more Arctic shipping routes could open, both for ordinary ships and those that are built to move through thicker ice. Even direct over-the-pole routes would potentially be navigable, at least during some part of the summer-fall shipping season. As Arctic routes become more direct, voyage times could fall to less than three weeks in some cases, making Arctic shipping potentially more attractive than the southern routes in coming decades. |
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